Topics to be Learn:

  • Reproduction
  • Asexual Reproduction in animals
  • Sexual Reproduction in animals
  • Menstrual cycle (Ovarian cycle)
  • Gametogenesis
  • Fertilization / Syngamy
  • Embryonic development
  • Pregnancy / Gestation
  • Placenta
  • Parturition
  • Lactation
  • Reproductive Health
  • Birth control
  • Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs)
  • Infertility

Reproduction:

  • Definition: Biological process forming new life from similar existing life.
  • Ensures species survival over time.
  • Methods: Asexual and sexual.

Asexual Reproduction in Animals:

Characteristics:

  • Common and primitive.
  • No meiosis or gamete formation/fertilization.
  • Involves single parent.
  • Offspring identical to parent (clone).
  • Examples: Gemmule formation and Budding.

Gemmule Formation in Sponges:

  • Definition: Internal bud exclusive to sponges for asexual reproduction during unfavorable conditions.
  • Characteristics:
  • Gemmule: Mass of dormant archaeocytes.
  • Archaeocytes develop into new organism.
  • Amoebocytes secrete thick membrane around archaeocytes.

  • Process: Gemmules remain dormant until favorable conditions return. Hatch and develop into new individuals.
  • Example: Spongilla.

Budding in Coelenterates and Colonial Ascidians:

  • Definition: Simple asexual reproduction method observed in coelenterates (Hydra and corals) and some colonial ascidians.
  • Formation: Small outgrowth (bud) develops towards basal end of body.
  • Development: Bud grows, forms tentacles, and transforms into new individual. Young Hydra detaches from parent to become separate organism.

Sexual Reproduction in Animals:

  • Definition: Offspring produced by fusion of gametes (amphimixes).
  • Gamete Formation: Both male and female parents undergo meiosis in gonads.

Phases in Life:

  • a) Juvenile Phase/Pro-reproductive Phase: Growth.
  • b) Reproductive/Maturity Phase: Sex organ maturation.

Breeding Patterns:

  • Seasonal Breeders: Breed only in particular season (e.g., goat, sheep, donkey).
  • Continuous Breeders: Breed throughout the year (e.g., human, apes).

Human Reproduction:

  • Steps: Gametogenesis - Insemination - Internal Fertilization - Zygote Formation and Embryogenesis - Gestation and Parturition- Lactation

Primary Sex Organs:

  • Male: Testes (singular: testis)
  • Female: Ovaries (singular: ovary)

Secondary or Accessory Sex Organs:

  • Male: Organs other than testis.
  • Female: Organs other than ovaries.

Secondary Sexual Characteristics:

  • Male: Beard, mustache, chest hair, muscular body, enlarged larynx, etc.
  • Females: Developed breasts, broader pelvis, high-pitched voice, etc.
  • Sexual Dimorphism:Phenomena identifying sexes externally.

Male Reproductive System:

Parts: Testes - Accessory Ducts – Glands - External Genitalia

1. Testes: 

  • Position: Located in scrotum.
  • Structure: Dimensions: Approximately 4.5 cm length, 2.5 cm width, 3 cm thickness, Contains 200 to 300 lobules with seminiferous tubules. 
  • Functions: Produce sperm, Secrete male sex hormone, androgen or testosterone.

2. Accessory Ducts: Rete Testis - Vasa Efferentia – Epididymis - Vas Deferentia - Ejaculatory Duct - Urethra

a) Rete Testis:

  • Position: Posterior side of testis.
  • Structure: Formed by convergence of Seminiferous tubules.
  • Functions: Carry sperms to vasa efferentia.

b) Vasa Efferentia:

  • Position: Arise from rete testis and end into epididymis.
  • Structure: 12-20 fine tubules.
  • Functions: Carry sperms to epididymis.

c) Epididymis:

  • Position: Located on posterior border of each testis.
  • Structure: Long, coiled tubes with caput, corpus, and cauda regions.
  • Functions: Sperm maturation occurs.

d) Vas Deferentia:

  • Position: Enter abdominal cavity through inguinal canal, ascend as spermatic cord.
  • Structure: Pair of 40 cm long tubular structures.
  • Function: Carry sperm from epididymis to ejaculatory ducts.

e) Ejaculatory Duct:

  • Position: About 2 cm long, formed by joining vas deferens and ducts of seminal vesicles.
  • Structure: Tube-like structure passing through prostate gland, opening into urethra.
  • Functions: Carry seminal fluid containing spermatozoa to urethra.

f) Urethra:

  • Position: Extends through penis.
  • Structure: About 18-20 cm long tube with urethral orifice.
  • Functions: Provides passage for urine and semen.

3. Accessory Glands:

  • Components: Seminal Vesicles, Prostate Gland, Cowper’s or Bulbourethral Glands.
  • Functions: Secrete fluids aiding reproductive functions.

4. External Genitalia:

  • Components: Penis, Scrotum.
  • Functions: Copulatory organ (penis), thermoregulator (scrotum).

Terms Associated with External Genitalia of Male:

  1. Inguinal Canal: Passage for testes descent into scrotum.
  2. Gubernaculum: Fibro-muscular band in scrotum.
  3. Cryptorchidism: Failure of testis descent into scrotum causing sterility.
  4. Erectile Tissues in Penis: Paired Corpora Cavernosa, Median Corpus Spongiosum.

Semen:

  • Composition: Viscous, alkaline, milky fluid containing sperm and secretions from epididymis, prostate gland, and Cowper’s glands.
  • Rich in: Fructose, Ca++, bicarbonates, prostaglandins.

Histology of Testis:

  • External Coverings (L.S.): Outer to inner: Tunica Vaginalis, Tunica Albuginea, Tunica Vasculosa.
  • Testicular Structure: Divided into 200-300 testicular lobules by Tunica Albuginea, Each lobule contains 1-4 seminiferous tubules.

Cellular Components:
  • Interstitial Cells of Leydig (Leydig's Cells): Found between seminiferous tubule, Secrete male hormone androgen or testosterone.
  • Germinal Epithelial Cells: Cuboidal cells lining seminiferous tubules, 
  • Sertoli Cells (Sub-tentacular Cells or Nurse Cells): Large pyramidal cells, Provide nutrition to developing sperm.

Stages of Sperm Development: Spermatogonia, Primary Spermatocyte, Secondary Spermatocyte, Spermatids, Sperms.
Female Reproductive System:

  • Parts: Ovaries - Fallopian Tubes (Oviducts) - Uterus (Womb) - Vagina - External Genitalia (Vulva) - Vestibular Glands - Mammary Glands

1. Ovaries:

  • Situated in upper lateral part of pelvis near kidneys.
  • Dimensions: About 3 cm length, 1.5 cm breadth, 1.0 cm thickness.
  • Solid, oval or almond-shaped.
  • Produce ova and hormones (estrogen, progesterone, relaxin, activin, inhibin).
  • Control secondary sexual characteristics, menstrual cycle, pregnancy, and parturition.

2. Fallopian Tubes (Oviducts):

  • Horizontal over peritoneal cavity.
  • Length: 10 to 12 cm.
  • Lined by ciliated epithelium.
  • Transport ovum from ovary to uterus.
  • Subdivisions: a) Infundibulum: With finger-like processes (fimbria), b) Ampulla: Site of fertilization. c) Cornua or Isthmus: Opens into uterus.

Uterus (Womb):

  • Pear-shaped, highly muscular, thick-walled, hollow organ.
  • Dimensions: About 8 cm length, 5 cm width, 2 cm thickness.
  • Three Parts: Fundus, Body (Corpus), Cervix.
  • Layers: a) Perimetrium: Outer serous layer. b) Myometrium: Middle thick muscular layer. c) Endometrium: Inner highly vascular mucosa with uterine glands.
  • Functions: Receive ovum, develop placenta during pregnancy, expel young at birth.

Vagina:

  • Highly distensible fibro-muscular tube between cervix and vestibule.
  • Length: 7 to 9 cm.
  • Internally lined by stratified, non-keratinized epithelium.
  • Functions: Birth canal, copulatory passage, passage of menstrual flow.
  • Opens into vestibule with vaginal orifice, may be covered with hymen.
External Genitalia (Vulva): Components: Labia Majora - Labia Minora - Mons Veneris- Clitoris- Vestibule.
 Vestibular Glands (Bartholin’s Glands): Release lubricating fluid into vestibule.
 Mammary Glands (Breasts): Accessory organs for production and release of milk after parturition.

Puberty / Sexual Maturity in Females:

Initiation of Puberty:

  • Gonadotropins (FSH and LH) secreted by anterior pituitary stimulate ovaries.
  • Ovaries produce estrogen and progesterone.
  • Hormonal changes bring about secondary sexual characters.

Reproductive Age of Female:

  • Period from menarche to menopause.
  • Menarche: Beginning of menstrual cycle at 10 to 14 years.
  • Menopause: Cessation of reproductive cycles around 45 to 50 years due to hormonal imbalance.
Structure and Development of Ovary:
  • Histological Structure: Central part: Medulla. Outer part: Cortex.
  • Cortex covered by germinal epithelium, medulla contains stroma with blood vessels, lymph vessels, and nerve fibers.
  • Ovarian Follicle Development:
  •  Primordial follicles mature into multilayered primary, secondary, and Graafian follicles during menstrual cycle.
  • Graafian follicle: Outer layers - theca externa, theca interna, membrane granulosa, filled with antrum containing liquor folliculi.
  • Cumulus oophorus or discus proligerus: Small hillock of cells over which ovum is lodged.
  • Layers covering ovum: Vitelline membrane, zona pellucida, corona radiata.
  • Corpus Luteum:
  • Formed from empty Graafian follicle after ovulation.
  • Converts into corpus albicans (white body) in absence of conception.

Menstrual Cycle (Ovarian Cycle) 

Overview: 

  • Series of cyclic changes in ovary and uterus.
  • Regulated by gonadotropins from pituitary and hormones from ovary.
  • Cycles repeated approximately every 28 days.

Phases of Menstrual Cycle and Their Hormonal Control:

1. Menstrual Phase (Day 1-5):

  • Occurs in absence of fertilization.
  • Uterine endometrium sloughed off.
  • Decrease in progesterone and estrogen levels.
  • Release of prostaglandins causing endometrial rupture.
  • Discharge of blood, tissue fluid, mucus, cellular debris through vagina.
  • FSH secretion from pituitary stimulates follicle development.

2. Follicular Phase (Day 5-14):

  • Follicles develop in ovary, endometrium proliferates.
  • 6 to 12 secondary follicles develop, one becomes Graafian follicle.
  • Developing follicles secrete estrogen.
  • Estrogen stimulates endometrial regeneration, proliferation.
  • Endometrial thickness: 3-5 mm.

3. Ovulatory Phase (Day 14-15):

  • Ovulation occurs.
  • Mature Graafian follicle ruptures, secondary oocyte released.
  • Surge of LH from pituitary triggers ovulation.

4. Luteal Phase (Day 16 to 28):

  • Empty Graafian follicle becomes corpus luteum under LH influence.
  • Uterine endometrium thickens, becomes more secretory (secretory phase).
  • Corpus luteum secretes progesterone, estrogen, inhibin.
  • Stimulates growth of endometrial glands, uterine secretions.
  • Endometrium becomes more vascularized, 8-10 mm thick.
  • Corpus luteum survives for two weeks, then degenerates into corpus albicans if no fertilization.
  • If fertilization occurs, hCG secreted by embryo maintains corpus luteum.
  • Presence of hCG in blood and urine indicates pregnancy.
  • If no fertilization, corpus luteum regresses, new menstrual cycle begins.
 Gametogenesis:
  • Definition: Formation of gametes in sexually reproducing animals.
  • Types of Gametes: Sperm: Male gamete andOvum (Egg): Female gamete.
  • Formation of Gametes: From primordial germ cells of gonads.

Spermatogenesis:

  • Process of sperm formation.
  • Occurs in testis (male gonads) in seminiferous tubules lined by germinal epithelium.
  • Nurse cells (or Sertoli cells) provide nourishment to developing sperms.

Phases of Spermatogenesis:

  • Multiplication Phase
  • Growth Phase
  • Maturation Phase
1. Multiplication Phase: Repeated mitotic divisions produce spermatogonia (diploid).
2. Growth Phase: Spermatogonium grows in size, becomes primary spermatocyte.
3. Maturation Phase: Primary spermatocyte undergoes first meiotic division, forming two haploid secondary spermatocytes. Secondary spermatocyte undergoes second meiotic division, forming spermatids.
  • Spermiogenesis: Spermatids undergo metamorphosis to form mature, motile sperms.
Changes During Spermiogenesis:
  • Increase in sperm length.
  • Distinction of centrioles into proximal and distal.
  • Formation of axial filament, spirally coiled mitochondria, and acrosome from Golgi complex.

Structure of Sperm (Spermatozoa):

  • Microscopic, elongated haploid motile male gamete.
  • Measures about 0.055 mm in length.
  • Produced by spermatogenesis.
  • Viability: 72 hours, fertilization potential: 12 to 14 hours.
  • Parts of Sperm: Head, Neck, Middle Piece, Tail.

1. Head:

  • Main part, flat and oval.
  • Contains large nucleus and acrosome.
  • Acrosome: Derived from Golgi complex, secretes hyaluronidase for egg penetration.
  • Covered by a fibrillar sheath.

2. Neck:

  • Short region with two centrioles.
  • Proximal centriole aids in first cleavage of zygote.
  • Axial filament formed by distal centriole.

3. Middle Piece:

  • Functions as powerhouse for sperm.
  • Contains many spirally coiled mitochondria.
  • Mitochondria supply energy for sperm's movement (1.5 to 3 mm per minute).
  • Covered by a sheath along with posterior half of nucleus and neck.

4. Tail:

  • Long, slender, tapering structure.
  • Formed of cytoplasm.
  • Contains axial filament and nine accessory fibers surrounding two central longitudinal axial filaments.
  • Tail lashes, aiding spermatozoa's swimming.

Oogenesis: Process in the ovary leading to the formation of the secondary oocyte.

Phases of Oogenesis:


  • Phase of Multiplication: Oogonia formation in large numbers.
  • Phase of Growth: One oogonium enlarges, becoming a primary oocyte.
  • Phase of Maturation:
  • Primary oocyte undergoes meiosis I, forming a large haploid secondary oocyte.
  • Unequal cytoplasmic division: secondary oocyte and polar bodies.

Structure of Ovum (Secondary Oocyte):

  • Rounded, haploid, non-motile, largest cell in the body (0.1 mm diameter).
  • Microlecithal, almost yolk-free.
  • Abundant cytoplasm with a large eccentric nucleus surrounded by a vitelline membrane.
  • Centriole absent.
  • Exhibits polarity: animal pole (with polar body and nucleus) and vegetal pole.
  • Enclosed by zona pellucida (inner, thin, non-cellular) and corona radiata (outer, thick, cellular).
  • Perivitelline space between vitelline membrane and zona pellucida.
  • Zona pellucida secreted by the ovum, corona radiata formed by follicular cells. 
Fertilization / Syngamy
  • Fertilization: Fusion of haploid male and female gametes into a diploid zygote.
  • Location: Internal, occurs in the ampulla of the fallopian tube.
Sequence of Events:
  1. Capacitation of Sperms: Sperms move towards the secondary oocyte.
  2. Release of Acrosomal Enzymes: Sperm head releases enzymes upon contact with the secondary oocyte.
  3. Separation of Corona Radiata Cells: Acrosomal enzymes like hyaluronidase dissolve cells of the corona radiata.
  4. Compatibility Reaction: Fertilizin (egg) binds with antifertilizin (sperm). Zona pellucida of the egg has fertilizin receptor proteins (ZP3, ZP2). Acrosome ruptures, releasing acrosin / zona lysin.
  5. Acrosome Reaction: Acrosin dissolves zona pellucida and vitelline membrane at the contact point of the sperm head.
  6. Entry of Sperm Nucleus into Ovum: Sperm nucleus and centriole enter the ovum.
  7. Formation of Fertilization Membrane / Cortical Reaction: Vitelline membrane of the ovum converts into a fertilization membrane, preventing polyspermy.
  8. Activation of Ovum: Completion of meiosis-II of the secondary oocyte occurs. Ovum receives the centriole from the sperm, completing meiosis-II and releasing the second polar body.
  9. Syngamy / Karyogamy: Fusion of male pronucleus and female pronucleus. Synkaryon formed after fusion of male and female nuclei.
  10. Formation of Diploid Zygote:Concludes the process of fertilization.

Significance of Fertilization:

  • Forms Zygote: Fertilization creates the zygote, which develops into new offspring.
  • Restores Diploid Chromosomes: Two haploid gametes merge during fertilization, restoring the diploid number of chromosomes in the zygote.
  • Completion of Oogenesis: Fertilization passes on centrioles to the ovum, allowing the secondary Oocyte to complete meiosis-II, concluding the process of oogenesis.
  • Genetic Variation: Fertilization mixes the genetic characters of two parents, leading to variation and playing a role in evolution.
  • Determines Sex: Fertilization determines the sex of the offspring.
Embryonic Development: 
1. Cleavage:
  • Rapid mitotic divisions of the zygote to form a hollow spherical multicellular blastula.
  • Begins as the zygote passes through the fallopian tube.
  • Holoblastic, equal, and indeterminate in humans.
  • Daughter cells are called blastomeres.
 2. Cleavage Stages: 
 

3. Blastulation:
  • Formation of a hollow, multicellular blastocyst from the 16-32 celled morula stage.
  • Blastocyst reaches the uterus and absorbs glycogen-rich uterine milk.
  • Outer layer forms trophoblast, inner cells form inner cell mass or embryoblast.
  • Blastocyst size doubles from 0.15 mm to 0.30 mm.
  • Trophoblast cells flatten, forming a blastocyst cavity.
  • Rauber's cells are trophoblast cells in contact with the embryonal knob.
4. Implantation:
  • Embedding of the blastocyst in the uterine endometrium for further gestation.
  • Occurs on the 7th to 10th day after fertilization.
  • Trophoblast divides into cytotrophoblast and syncytiotrophoblast, aiding in burying the blastocyst in the endometrium.

5. Gastrulation:

  • Definition: Formation of gastrula from the blastocyst, starting around 8 days after fertilization.
  • Events during Gastrulation:
  • Differentiation of blastomeres: Rearrangement of blastomeres forms three germinal layers.
  • Morphogenetic movements: Cells move to their destined areas of differentiation.

Sequential Changes in Gastrulation:

  1. Formation of endoderm
  2. Formation of embryonic disc
  3. Formation of amniotic cavity
  4. Formation of ectoderm
  5. Formation of mesoderm
  6. Formation of extra-embryonic coelom
  7. Formation of chorion and amnion

Organogenesis: Process of forming organs after gastrulation.

Fate of Germinal Layers (Histogenesis):
  • Ectoderm: Epidermis, sweat glands, lens, nervous system, etc.
  • Mesoderm: Muscles, connective tissue, circulatory system, kidney, etc.
  • Endoderm: Epithelium of gut, glands of stomach, lungs, liver, pancreas, etc.

Pregnancy / Gestation:

  • Definition: Condition of developing foetus in the uterus.
  • Duration: About 280 days in humans, divided into three trimesters of three months each.

Three Trimesters:

1. First Trimester: (From fertilization to 12th week)

  • Radical changes in mother's body and embryo.
  • Organogenesis occurs.
  • Embryo becomes a rudimentary foetus (~3 cm long) by eight weeks.
  • Major organs, limbs, CNS, and circulatory system develop.
  • Maternal progesterone levels rise, suspending menstrual cycle.
  • Foetus reaches ~7-10 cm by trimester end.
  • Mother may experience morning sickness.

2. Second Trimester: (From 13th to 26th week)

  • Foetus grows to ~30 cm.
  • Pregnancy becomes visually apparent.
  • Hormone levels stabilize, placenta takes over progesterone production.
  • Foetus develops hair, eyebrows, eyelashes, pinnae.
  • Baby's movements felt by mother.
  • Foetus reaches half the size of a newborn.

 3. Third Trimester: (From 27th week till parturition)

  • Foetus grows to ~50 cm and 3-4 kg.
  • Uterus expands, compressing maternal organs.
  • Mother experiences frequent urination, digestive issues, back strain.
  • Foetus fully developed and ready for parturition.

Placenta:

  • Definition: Flattened, discoidal organ attached to uterine wall and baby's umbilical cord.
  • Functions: Facilitates nutrient and oxygen exchange, removes waste.
  • Formation: Combination of foetal chorionic villi and maternal uterine wall.
  • Type: Human placenta is haemochorial (foetal villi and maternal tissue).
  • Endocrine Function: Produces hormones like hCG, progesterone, estrogen, and relaxin.

Parturition:
  • Definition: Birth process accompanied by labour pains.
  • Neuro-endocrine Mechanism: Rise in estrogen:progesterone ratio, Increase in oxytocin receptors in uterine wall.Stages:
1. Dilation Stage: (~12 hours)
  • Uterine contractions start, moving baby toward cervix.
  • Oxytocin secretion causes severe uterine contractions.
  • Cervix and vagina dilate, amniotic sac ruptures.
2. Expulsion Stage: (20 to 60 minutes)
  • Stronger uterine and abdominal contractions.
  • Foetus moves head down through cervix and vagina.
  • Umbilical cord tied and cut.
3. After Birth/Placental Stage: (10 to 45 minutes)
  • Placenta separates from uterine wall and expelled.
  • Uterine contractions continue.

Lactation: Nourishment of newborn through milk.

  • Mammary glands become functional.
  • First milk called colostrum, rich in proteins and antibodies.
  • Neuroendocrine process involving various maternal glands.

Distinguish between Asexual and Sexual Reproduction:

Reproductive Health:
  • Definition: Total wellbeing of emotional, behavioural, physical, and social aspects related to reproduction.
  • Initiatives in India: Reproductive and Child Health Care (RCH) programmes, National-level action plans for improving reproductive health.
  • Objectives: Control population growth, Improve awareness and facilities for reproductive health, Reduce infertility, infant mortality, and maternal mortality rates.

Goals of RCH Programmes:

  • Create awareness about reproduction.
  • Provide reproductive health facilities.
  • Support for a reproductively healthy society.
  • Reduce infertility, infant, and maternal mortality rates.

Achieving RCH Goals:

  1. Sex Education: Introduce in schools covering safe practices, STDs, adolescent issues.
  2. Media Awareness: Use audio-visual and print media for dissemination.
  3. Birth Control Education: Educate youth about contraception, prenatal, and postnatal care.
  4. Population Control Awareness: Highlight problems of uncontrolled growth, sex crimes prevention.
  5. Ban Awareness: Educate on statutory bans like amniocentesis for sex determination.
  6. Immunization Awareness: Promote child immunization programmes. 
Birth Control: Methods to control family size through contraceptive measures.

Types of Contraceptive Methods:

1. Temporary Methods:
  • Natural Method/Safe Period/Rhythm Method: Avoiding intercourse around ovulation (14th day of menstrual cycle).
  • Coitus Interruptus or Withdrawal: Withdrawal of penis before ejaculation.
  • Lactational Amenorrhoea: Intense lactation post-parturition inhibits ovulation.
  • Chemical Means (Spermicides): Foam, tablets, jellies, or creams immobilize and kill sperm.
2. Mechanical Means/Barrier Methods:
  • Condom: Thin rubber sheath covering the penis; prevents STDs and AIDS.
  • Diaphragm, Cervical Caps, and Vaults: Rubber devices inserted into the vagina to cover the cervix.
  • Intra-uterine Devices (IUDs): Plastic or metal objects placed in the uterus; prevent fertilization or embryo implantation.
  • Oral Contraceptive Pills: Inhibit ovulation by suppressing FSH and LH secretion.
  • Birth Control Implant: Implanted under the skin of the upper arm; similar to oral contraceptives.

3. Permanent Methods:

  • Sterilization: Surgical procedures for permanent contraception.
  • Male Sterilization (Vasectomy): Cutting and sealing the vas deferens.
  • Female Sterilization (Tubectomy): Blocking or sealing the fallopian tubes.

Medical Termination of Pregnancy (MTP):

  • Definition: Intentional termination of pregnancy before full term.
  • MTP is induced abortion.
  • Indirectly controls population.
  • Legalized in India since 1971.
  • Performed for discontinuing unwanted pregnancies or due to foetal defects.
  • Aborting healthy female embryos is illegal.
  • Safely done only during the first trimester.

Amniocentesis:

  • Process of collecting amniotic fluid containing foetal cells for chromosome analysis.
  • Done to check for foetal abnormalities.
  • Sex determination by amniocentesis is legally banned in India.

PC-PNDT Act (2003):

  • Mandates:
  • Prohibition of sex selection before or after conception.
  • Regulation of pre-natal diagnostic techniques.
  • Prevention of misuse for sex determination leading to female foeticide.
  • Aimed at banning sex selection techniques and preventing misuse of pre-natal techniques for sex-selective abortions.
  • Essential for preventing female foeticides and improving the sex ratio in India.

Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs):

  • Definition: Infections transmitted through sexual intercourse.
  • Also known as Venereal Diseases (VDs) or Reproductive Tract Infections (RTIs).
  • Major diseases include syphilis and gonorrhoea.
Syphilis:
  • Caused by: Spirochaete bacterium Treponema pallidum.
  • Transmission Modes: Sexual intercourse, kissing, close body contact. Mothers can transmit to newborns (Congenital syphilis).
  • Symptoms: Primary lesion called chancre at infection site. Skin rashes, fever, inflamed joints, hair loss. Paralysis, degenerative changes in heart and brain.
  • Preventive Measures: Sex education, hygiene, avoiding sex with unknown partners. Condom use during intercourse.
  • Treatment: Prompt treatment with Penicillin.

Gonorrhoea:

  • Caused by: Diplococcus bacterium, Neisseria gonorrhoeae.
  • Transmission Modes: Sexual contacts, infested clothes. Incubation period: 2-14 days in males, 7-21 days in females.
  • Symptoms (Males): Partial urethral blockage, pus from penis, pain during urination, arthritis.
  • Symptoms (Females): Pelvic inflammation, urinary tract issues, sterility, arthritis.
  • Preventive Measures: Sexual hygiene, condom use. Avoiding sex with unknown or multiple partners.
  • Treatment: Cefixime antibiotic.

Infertility:

  • Definition: Inability to conceive naturally after one year of regular unprotected intercourse.
  • Options for infertile couples:
  • Fertility drugs
  • Test tube babies
  • Artificial insemination
  • Intrauterine insemination (IUI)
  • Surrogate motherhood
Assisted Reproductive Technologies (ART):
  • In Vitro Fertilization (IVF): Fertilization outside the body, with the embryo later transferred to the mother's body (test-tube baby).
  • Zygote Intra Fallopian Transfer (ZIFT): Transfer of the embryo into the fallopian tubes.
  • Gamete Intra Fallopian Transfer (GIFT): Transferring donor ovum to another female's fallopian tube acting as a surrogate mother.
  • Intra Cytoplasmic Sperm Injection (ICSI): Injection of single sperm directly into an ovum's cytoplasm in the laboratory.
  • Artificial Insemination (AI): Introduction of collected sperms into the female cervix for in vivo fertilization.
  • Intra Uterine Insemination (IUI): Similar to AI, but sperms are introduced into the uterine cavity.
  • Sperm/Semen Bank: Collection and storage of sperms for needy couples via cryopreservation.
  • Adoption: Legal adoption of a child by a couple or single parent.
  • Surrogate Mother: Implantation of embryo in a woman who acts as a surrogate, not the biological mother.

Impact of Substance Use on Infertility:
  • Tobacco/Nicotine: Blocks sperm production, reduces testicle size.
  • Alcoholism: Interferes with testosterone synthesis, impacts sperm count.
  • Cocaine/Marijuana: Reduces sperm count and quality temporarily.